There is a striking difference in purpose, structure and emphasis between the RDP Policy Framework and the RDP White Paper. These differences are a result of the changes in the group of contributory authors, their situation and the influences upon them when the documents were produced. The Policy Framework (or Base Document as it is known) was produced as a visionary manifesto to propel the ANC into power at the forthcoming elections. As such, it could be described as a document which seeks to be all things to all people without explicitly showing how it will pursue its ideals. The RDP White Paper, on the other hand, is a post-election document of the Government of National Unity (GNU), within which the ANC is part but not whole, which begins to formalise the frameworks through which the new government would formulate policy organise governance.

The Base Document is structured around five core chapters which present the "five key programmes" the ANC have chosen to encapsulate their goals in the process of reconstruction and development. Crucial to these objectives is the sustainability of the process and its results. The "five key programmes" are:

• Meeting basic needs
• Developing our human resources
• Building the economy
• Democratising state and society
• Implementing the RDP

The point of departure for the Base Document is the end of the apartheid era. It draws extensively upon the concrete residues of this era in asserting the need for transformation, reconstruction and development in South Africa.

"The result [of the apartheid] is that in every sphere of our society – economic, social, political, moral, cultural, environmental, - South Africans are confronted by serious problems."

The five key programmes of the RDP Base Document seek, together, to holistically address these problems.

The White Paper asserts that the five programmes "provide the broad objectives and are a guide to action, and a basic checklist of performance for all participants in the RDP". The White Paper sets out the structure of the institutional framework the government intends to build, and its intended economic strategy, in order to implement the above objectives. The WP is divided up into chapters dealing with the issues of governance at national, provincial and local government levels and in the public sector as a whole. It also devotes chapters to the "Economic Policy Framework" and to "Fiscal Policy". The issues of "Consultation, Participation and Capacity-Building" are addressed in a specific chapter. The document is closed with the establishment of a number of "Lead Projects", which are designed to "launch the key programmes". In particular, "[t]he focus of the Presidential Projects is… on – initiating changes in government spending priorities and utilisation of resources – launching long-term programmes – beginning delivery of concrete benefits to disadvantaged communities."

The Principles of the RDP

The RDP is an attempt to address the concept of development in a holistic way. The "six basic principles of the RDP… linked together, make up the political and economic philosophy that underlies the whole" programme. These principles are common to both documents although the details of their elaboration differ. The basic principles are:

• An integrated and sustainable programme
• A people-driven process
• Peace and security for all
• Nation-building
• Link[ing] reconstruction and development

• Democratisation of South Africa

The first principle underlines the holistic nature of the RDP, by "bring[ing] together strategies to harness all our resources in a coherent and purposeful effort that can be sustained into the future." The White Paper highlights that, "all levels of government must pay attention to affordability."

The second principle recognises people as the country’s most important resource and that they must drive the development process. The principle states that "[d]evelopment.. is about active involvement and growing empowerment."

In the base document, the third principle – "Peace and Security" - is expanded upon with particular reference to the violence of the apartheid state. This approach is toned down in the White Paper in favour of a broader attack on crime.

The fourth principle – "Nation-building" - in the Base Document emphasises the division within South Africa making it both a "first" and "third world" country. It states "we must not confine growth strategies to the former while doing patchwork and piecemeal development in the latter, waiting for trickle-down development." This has been totally removed from the White Paper and replaced by a focus on a conciliatory phrasing stating that South Africa already is "a single country, with a single economy" based upon the "success of the electoral process and the establishment of the GNU."

The fifth principle – "Linking reconstruction and development" - undergoes a fundamental redrafting between the Base Document and the White Paper. The Base Document underscores the importance of directing sustainable development through a suitable growth path.

"This is in contrast to a commonly held view that growth and development, or growth and redistribution are processes that contradict each other. Growth - the measurable increase in the output of the modern industrial economy - is commonly seen as the priority that must proceed development. Development is portrayed as the marginal effort of redistribution to areas of urban and rural poverty. In this view, development is a deduction from growth. The RDP breaks decisively with this approach. If growth is defined as an increase in output, then it is of course a basic goal. However, where that growth occurs, how sustainable it is, how it is distributed, the degree to which it contributes to building long-term productive capacity and human resource development, and what impact it has on the environment, are the crucial questions when considering reconstruction and development."

The above quotation and emphasis is removed from the White Paper. Both documents see infrastructure building as key to the reconstruction, growth and development of society. In addition the White Paper crucially highlights that for the process of "infrastructure and resource development … to be effective, attention will be paid to those economic factors inhibiting growth and investment and placing obstacles in the way of private sector expansion". One perceives a subtle shift in emphasis from the Base Document away from development and towards growth.

The sixth, and final, principle emphasises that for the preceding principles to be successfully implemented will require a "thorough-going democratisation" of the South African State and civil society.

The RDP Base Document and Environmentally Sustainable Development

The following section analyses the RDP with respect to its content concerning the environment. The Base Document is structured around and focuses on elucidating its five key programmes.

The Base Document has a broad definition of ‘basic needs’ (Chapter 2).

"[T]he RDP aims to set South Africa firmly on the road to eliminating hunger, providing land and housing to all our people, providing access to safe water and sanitation for all, ensuring availability of affordable and sustainable energy sources, eliminating illiteracy, raising the quality of education and training for children and adults, protecting the environment, and improving our health services and making them accessible to all."

The chapter focusing on basic needs is broken up into sections addressing each of these needs in turn. In its vision statement it asserts "the RDP is committed to a programme of sustainable development which addresses the needs of our people without compromising the interests of future generations." It also asserts that "without meeting basic needs, no political democracy can survive in South Africa."

The section devoted to the environment focuses principally on its management. It begins with the concept of environmental rights, asserting that "[t]he democratic government must ensure that all South Africans, present and future, have the right to a decent quality of life through sustainable use of resources." Crucially, the Base Document states that "the government must work towards a participatory decision-making process around environmental issues, empowering communities to manage their natural environment."

The language of this section is very strident, committing the government to action by repeated use of the word "must". For example, "[e]nvironmental considerations must be built into every decision" and "[d]evelopment strategies must incorporate environmental consequences in the course of planning." Both of these examples assert a commitment to ‘internalising’ the environment. This is followed by an undertaking to "make use of environmental auditing" and "monitor" industrial activities which have an "impact on the environment".

The Base Document outlines a number of strategies that address specific areas of concern to communities in South Africa. These include "preventing pollution and reducing waste", avoiding community exclusion in conservation decisions and the subsequent benefits from tourism, encouraging environmental education and establishing workers’ rights to monitor the environment within and surrounding their workplace.

Finally, this section addresses the issues of regulation, legislation and implementation. It emphasises the importance of having a cohesive and comprehensive institutional framework which should be coordinated by a "national Department of Environmental Affairs". It asserts that "both local and provincial governments" as well as civil society have an integral role to play in this coordinated strategy.

Within the chapter concerning "Meeting Basic Needs" the environment is brought up a number of times in different contexts. In the "Jobs Through Public Works" section (2.3) the RDP calls for a coordinated national programme "to repair environmental damage". It does not, however, mention the idea of assessing the environmental impact of infrastructure building projects at the stage of their planning, or otherwise, here.

In the context of "Land Reform" there is no explicit mention of environmental issues or conflicts of interest. Land is considered a very valuable asset within Southern Africa and its careful management is essential in order to maintain its integrity. No mention is made of the problems of land degradation in the overcrowded former homelands. This section instead concentrates upon ownership, restitution and redistribution. There is no attempt to address the issues and problems of past exclusions and removals of peoples from "conservation" areas. The overall idea of integrated land use planning is not raised.

The section addressing "Housing and Services" (2.5) is comparatively long. It focuses upon all aspects of the provision of housing from their design to the financing of construction. However, here there is no explicit mention of a role for strategic environmental assessments.

"Housing and Services" is followed by a number of sections concerned with specific services. The first of these is "Water and Sanitation" (2.6). South Africa is predominantly semi-arid, "with 70% of the country receiving 11% of the rainfall". Water resource management is, in this context, crucial, as is drought management. In supplying clean water sources and sanitation to previously unconnected households the Base Document promises that "community/household preferences and environmental sustainability will be taken into account".

"The RDP… advocates an economically, environmentally, and politically sustainable approach to the management of our water resources and the collection, treatment and disposal of waste."

However, an environmentally sustainable pledge concerning water management is unsurprising since the consequences of an unsustainable approach would be felt quickly.

"Energy and Electrification"(2.7), contains a number of significant references to environmental considerations. Currently the provision of energy to the majority of South African households is inadequate and unsustainable. The past "failure to assess and internalise environmental costs" and the fact that "[l]ittle attention has been paid to utilising sustainable energy sources such as solar power", is highlighted. And it is asserted that "energy efficiency and conservation must be a cornerstone of energy policies."

The majority are not yet connected to the national electricity grid. This provides the government with an opportunity to take a leading role in creating an environmentally sustainable electricity industry – "both grid and non-grid power sources (such as solar cells and generators) must be employed."

The section states the need for developing immediate policies to address the sustainable provision of fuel-wood (2.7.4). It contains a very strong statement of intent relating to micro energy efficiency. It introduces the idea of "least-cost planning approaches", including "the improvement of dwelling thermal performance, the promotion of energy-efficiency appliances, the use of solar water heaters, appliance labelling and the implementation of time-of-use electricity tariffs". It also assets that financial assistance to enable "access to efficient appliances will be essential".

It seems that the main omission from the "Energy and Electrification" section is a consideration or review of its current large-scale electricity generators – such as coal and nuclear power stations. There is no reference to the current or future methods of large-scale generation and thus no consideration of their environmental implications. There is no reference to internationally developed ‘cleaner technologies’, and the need to consider whether use of these would be appropriate.

The next section with implication for the environment is "Transport" (2.9). There are many international examples of the way the escalating use of private vehicular transport can lead to a wide-range of severe environmental problems. In South Africa the majority of the population are unable, currently, to afford private transport. It is because of this that the Base Document focuses on the provision of an integrated public transport system. No explicit requirement to consider the environment is made in the list of what "a future transport policy must" contain.

The chapter focusing upon "Developing Our Human Resources" (3), does not refer to the environment, nor perhaps does it really need to. Environmental education is ‘covered’ in the "Environment" section of "basic needs" and in "Education and Training" (3.3) the technicalities of curriculum content are not addressed.

"Building the Economy" (Chapter 4), for environmentally sustainable development to occur, depends upon the physical environment being seen as a fundamental resource upon whose health the success and sustainability of all projects depends. This point is not made in the vision, objectives or problem statement introducing the chapter. The RDP Base Document is presented as an integrated vision broken up into programme areas, and the vision of "Building the Economy" does include mention of the need to meet the objectives "outlined in previous chapters". However, the lack of specific reference to internalising the environment in programmes designed to reconstruct and develop the economy does imply it has been overlooked. The potential for innovation, international market leadership and employment in developing ‘environmentally-friendly’ technologies is not expressed. Neither is the need for environmental impact assessments to be made prior to large-scale developments.

There is significant reference to the environment in the context of urban development. The geography of urban areas currently represents in microcosm the South African geography of exclusion which was solidified during the apartheid era. Economic activities remain concentrated in cities and thus "renewing growth and promoting equity" will critically depend upon "ensuring the quality of life, sustainability and efficiency" of urban areas. This will require an urban development strategy with "several dimensions [to]… initiate a social environment which contributes to a better quality of life" through redressing "the imbalances in infrastructure, transportation and basic services". At the same time location of employment should be brought closer to home for the majority, such that, "sites for industries and services that will not harm the environment should be located near to existing townships". To summarise, "the environmental impact of urban reconstruction and development must form an integral part of an urban development strategy".

In the section addressing "Industry, Trade and Commerce" (4.4), the environment does not figure significantly. The opportunity for supporting the idea of product labelling and energy-efficient appliance production is not taken up. Neither is environmental innovation particularly suggested in the section promoting science and technology education, research and development (4.4.8).

In its consideration of "Resource-based Industries" (4.5), the Base Document asserts that the resources of South Africa, and their associated benefits, belong to all South Africans and thus proposes that mineral rights be returned to the ownership of the democratic government. Mining and mineral products are recognised to contribute 75% of South African exports and the benefits of adding value within the country through benification industries is proposed. The possible environmental impact of such a policy approach is not considered nor the need to ascertain this noted. The environment is addressed in a devoted paragraph towards the end of the section. In full, it states:

"Mining can be extremely destructive of our natural environment. Our policy is to make the companies that reap the profits from mining responsible for all environmental damage. Existing legislation must be strengthened to ensure that our environment is protected. Before a new mine can be established there must be a comprehensive environmental impact study."

"Agriculture" (4.5.2) does not mention the problem of soil erosion, water pollution due to agricultural run-off or, in fact, any other environmental impact of agriculture. It does propose that "efficient, labour-intensive and sustainable methods of farming must be researched and promoted" implying some recognition that there are a number of problems with the commercial methods currently in use. In the context of forestry (4.5.3), the Base Document recognises that "forests use important tracts of land, they limit the water supply and there are potential environmental hazards in single crop plantations… For these reasons the RDP promotes the tightening of regulations governing land use in sensitive areas."

The "Tourism" section (4.5.4) of the Base Document states that the sector has potential to make a more significant contribution to the economy. It also states the importance of making sure that tourism development is carefully planned. At the end of the section, reference is made to the need for "full and transparent environmental impact assessments [to] be conducted for all major tourism projects." This section emphasises the need for local management of projects, local sourcing of inputs and the promotion of ecotourism.

The remainder of the Base Document does not address environmental concerns specifically. The section "Democratising the State and Society" (Chapter 5) addresses in general terms the principles behind achieving a more proactive and informed population, looking at the different tiers of government and disparate groups within society, such as NGOs and CBOs. Essentially the section is devoted to an institutional assessment of what needs to be done, rather than the previously sectoral approach of the Base Document.

Summary of Base Document

The language of the Base Document is very ‘politically correct’ with respect to the environment. In particular, the environment section is an attempt to address past failures in management of the environment in the context of national development, bringing up the issues of planning and integration. However, the concept of environmentally sustainable development is never explicitly defined nor does it seem to have been thoroughly thought through. One could argue this is the case for all sectors within the Base Document! Nevertheless, the environment is certainly not featured as underlying all thought processes and plans with respect to all sectors.

The RDP is like a bar on a busy Friday night with many customers bustling to be served. Some will be served, some may leave short-changed and many will leave empty handed, grumbling at the unfairness of the queuing system! Which type of customer the Environment is the RDP does not explicitly reveal. Indeed, the authors of the document, like the barmen, probably did not know to what extent the language of the "Environment" section would be converted into a successful programme of action. However, there are always some customers more likely to be served than others!

The White Paper

The White Paper is a big step on from the Base Document. The ANC have been voted into majority power in the GNU and must now set about trying to implement the visions they proposed in the Base Document. Crucially, the RDP now has to face the rigours of the market, which is dominated by two big players – capital and labour. The emphasis of the White Paper moves towards a corporatist-style of government. It is this new tripartite structure that gives the White Paper its fundamental direction. Environmental concerns fall by the wayside (muscled from the bar by the big guys).

The "Preamble" reveals this fundamental change in direction. It states that the implementation of the RDP, "to effectively address the problems of poverty and the gross inequality evident in almost all aspects of South African society… can only be possible if the South African economy can be firmly placed on the path of high and sustainable growth." The White Paper highlights eight government commitments to "orientate its activities fully and effectively towards" the interdependent goals of "reconstruction and development on the one hand, and growth on the other."

• "The Government is fully committed to macro-economic policies which promote the RDP as an integrated and coherent growth and development strategy.
• The Government is firmly committed to the gradual reduction in the fiscal deficit, thereby avoiding the debt-trap.
• To this end, the Government intends to ensure that recurrent government expenditure does not increase in real terms.
• A further commitment is to reduce government dissaving over time.
• The Government is committed to changing the ratio of government spending towards increased capital expenditure.
• The Government is committed to financing the RDP primarily through restructuring the national, provincial and local government budgets to shift spending, programmes and activities to meet RDP priorities.
• The Government will reorganise and train the civil service to ensure effective and efficient services to all citizens and progressive cost savings.
• The Government will develop our human resources, facilitate labour market reform and establish effective collective-bargaining rights for all."

These commitments are clearly an attempt to put the RDP on a sustainable financial footing. The emphasis of the White Paper is upon creating a political and economic structure which provides an environment conducive to private investment. The White Paper emphasises the role of private capital in achieving the objectives of the RDP, thus freeing the government from sole responsibility of funding it. Rather the government seeks to take the role of a facilitator and director, promising fiscal discipline in order to attract capital investment.

The restructuring of government is addressed in depth. Discouragingly, for environmentalists, their concerns no longer seem to feature in the rhetoric. This is particularly poignant since sustainable development demands the environment be internalised as a key player in overall strategic governance. The RDP is heralded as the bringer of the "integrated, coherent socio-economic policy framework" for strategic governance in the new South Africa.

Observations

The RDP represents in its totality a vision of development. At a superficial level the basic principles appear to provide a comprehensive definition of what is needed for sustainable development towards a more socially, economically, environmentally and politically successful society. It regards the various strands of its programme as fundamental elements in the creation of such a society.

One of the problems of drawing out a clear definition of development from the RDP documents is that there are conflicting statements of intent within the documents which are not clearly resolved. A major cause of this ambiguity is perhaps the essence of the "paradigm of the political transition – inclusion, conciliation, consensus, stability." The RDP reflects this paradigm in its evolution from the revolutionary demands of the Freedom Charter to a conciliatory and unsurprising collection of promises in the White Paper. As Hein Marais points out, the failure of the black majority to seize the commanding heights of the economy restricts their ability to implement a totally new growth and development strategy aimed at poverty alleviation through redistribution. The ANC is severely constrained in its ability to achieve its political and ideological goals by the fact that it is reliant upon the economic resources of those who were privileged by the apartheid to fund its programmes – through public revenue collection and private investment. It is because the ANC had ultimately to sell its policies to this economic elite that the White Paper has been so scaled down from the Base Document. The RDP is unable to reconcile its vision with the reality of where the power and capacity lies in the existing society.

The Base Document explicitly asserts that a trickle-down approach will not achieve equitable development within South Africa. The RDP Base Document can indeed be viewed as prescribing a bottom-up process driven by the empowerment of civil society. The White Paper, however, moves away from this explicit prescription to a muddled compromise between bottom-up and trickle-down development. By the documents own definition it thus condemns itself to fail in implementing a new growth and development paradigm.